AFRICAN DRUMMING AND
HEALING:
THIS IS DRUMS
THIS IS YOUR BRAIN ON
DRUMS
ANY QUESTIONS?
Jennifer Davis
University of Oklahoma
Ethnomusicology
For many years I have thought about the healing power
of the drum, and the philosophy I have come to is that the drum is a kind of
trinity. The body of the drum, which
comes from a tree, contains the living spirit of that tree. Great care is taken to make sure that the
wood of the drum is alive. And the same
is true of the skin; whether it is the tanned hide of a goat or a buffalo, it
also contains a spirit that is still alive.
And when you join these two spirits with that of the person playing the
drum, the result is an irresistible force, a trinity, a balance that gives the
drum its healing power – Babatunde Olatunji (Hart 1990:214).
As an alternative
or supplement to medical and psychological support African drumming circles are
increasingly popular in community and clinical contexts. However, the medical community often
marginalizes African drumming because the connection between cultural values of
African drumming are frequently misunderstood or overlooked (Neher 1962:
152). African drumming’s interlocking
facets, repetition, inner time, timbre, and extended playing sessions
illustrate African cultural values of community participation, equality,
connection; and the emphasis of quality verses quantity (Chernoff 1979, Stone
2004). Understanding how these cultural
values expressed through participation in African drumming promote physical and
mental health can provide a clearer link between quantifiable results and the
aforementioned elements of African drumming.
African drumming can alter brain waves, body chemistry, blood pressure,
and pulse which facilitate increased immune function, focus, relaxation, and
assists pain management. African
drumming also leads to greater group unity (Achterberg 1985, Bittman 2001,
Janzen 1992, Maxfield 1999, Nunez 2006, and Redmond 1997). The purpose of this research is to foster
credibility of African drumming as a therapy in the academic and medical
community, and to encourage effective implementation of drumming circles in
community and clinical contexts.
The
history of the drum as a healing instrument reaches far into antiquity. Ancient Greeks used drums to produce states
of ecstasy closely related to shamanistic trances practiced in Africa (Gioia 2006: 72).
Shamans use specific rhythms to communicate with certain Orisha’s, which
are spirits (associated with the Guinea
coast in West Africa) summoned during healing
rituals (Stone 1997: 274). Consequently,
many of the first studies published about African drumming explore how the body
enters a trance state. In 1961 Andrew
Neher found that
prolonged
attention to rhythms increased the Alpha and Theta brainwaves associated with
deep states of relaxation or meditation.
Even so-called hyper vigilant individuals – selected for study because
they could not achieve Alpha wave states – were shown to produce them during
their first drumming session after only twenty to thirty minutes (Neher 1961:
449).
Subsequent studies
revealed that African drumming affects brain wave patterns because of the
inherent timbre of African drums. Edith
Turner and Andrew Neher (1962) both ascertained that because mixed sounds
transmit along more than one nerve pathway in the brain, drumming (which
contains many low frequencies) is more likely to “transmit energy to the brain
than other” stimuli (Turner 1992: 198).
Thus, the brain perceives less pain when inundated with repetitive low-frequency
drumming. The African environment
provides wood and skin for drums. Makers
carefully select materials and craft each drum to resonate at certain
frequencies, which demonstrates their respect for and connection to the
environment (Frazier 2011: Class
Notes). Although many African drums used
in drumming circles in the United States are produced from synthetic materials,
makers strive to retain the same pitch, timbre, and resonance of their African
counterparts (Nunez 2006:13-14).
I attended ten
African drumming classes during the 2011 spring semester at the University of Oklahoma
which used the djembe and djun djun drums common in Guinea,
West Africa.
The goblet-shaped djembe produces three distinct pitches which have a
dry focused timbre that dissipates quickly.
The djun djun bass drum set includes three sizes: small – kenkeni (the baby), medium – sangba
(the daddy), and large – djun djun (momma).
These drums are referred to as family unit which illustrates the
importance of connection in African drumming and African communities and
families. (Frazier 2010: Class Notes).
Djun djun drums are barrel-shaped with two heads. One head rests on the floor and the other
head is played with sticks. The djun
djun bass drums (especially the momma drum which I played) deliver a dark booming
timbre which resonates longer than the djembe’s.
Before several of
these drumming classes, I had lupus flares which caused joint pain in my head,
shoulders, back, hips, and knees. After
the drumming classes I felt refreshed, energized, and my joint pain was
significantly lower. The African
drumming sessions proved to be effective pain management which lasted the rest
of the day. From this experience I
conclude that the timbre and pitch of African drums correlate to reduced pain
reception as recorded by Melinda Maxwell:
Because
the auditory tracts of the ears pass directly into the reticular activating
system of the brain stem, which coordinates sensory input, strong repetitive
neuronal firing in the auditory pathways and the cerebral cortex, such as would
be experienced from drums, can theoretically…filter out other stimuli…including
pain (Maxfield 1994: 159).
African drumming
also affects brain and blood chemistry which increases immune function. Felicitas Goodman says that African drumming
participants’ “levels of adrenalin, noradrenalin, and cortisol first rose and then
fell, and that the brain produced beta-endorphins, a natural analgesic
responsible for euphoria” (Goodman 1988: 59).
Barry Bittman confirmed these changes in biochemistry through his 2001
study of the effects of group drumming on cortisol production and natural
killer cell activity. His results showed
decreased stress response in drumming circle participants which strengthens the
immune system (Bittman 2001: 43). What
musical characteristics are inherent in African drumming which facilitate these
changes? In African drumming ensembles
each person plays a facet (short motif or phrase) that interlocks with the
other parts to create a polyrhythmic composition. For example, I played a short four beat
phrase on my djun djun in African drumming class which intertwined with the
other parts. Because this was a class
designed for students with no musical experience our example of interlocking
rhythms is quite simple compared to rhythms typically played in African
drumming, such as Agbekor. However, the
basic principle of interlocking facets is present.
I = Improvisation BREAK signals beginning, transitions, and end
Djembe pitches: Y = open stroke (high pitch) X = slap stroke (middle pitch)
R = Rim stroke 0 = bass stroke (low pitch)
In African drumming rhythms there
is no perceived downbeat or stressed beat.
The rhythm defines itself by the relationships of each individual part
(Chernoff 1979: 51). This relational
view of individual parts reflects the connection Africans perceive between each
other within their communities. John
Chernoff says,
This may help explain why African drumming in
particular is helpful for mental, physical, and spiritual healing because of
the internalized rhythmic relationships, and because there is no stressed beat
it can accommodate more than one person at a time and allow for individuality
while still promoting solidarity and unity (Chernoff 1979: 51).
Music therapy resources and
efficiency can benefit from African drumming’s ability to incorporate more than
one type of therapy at the same time.
Clients in the drumming circle can experience unity, while individuals
who improvise over the timeline express their individuality.
The most important
aesthetic value in Africa is participation, without it “there is no meaning”
(Chernoff 1979:23). African drumming
derives its correlation to healing, “at least in part from its ability to
involve the entire community in the medical process” (Gioia 2006: 33). Bittman’s study revealed that increased
immune function was higher in groups that interacted with each other verbally,
visually, and physically; than in groups which only played with no
interpersonal communication (Bittman 2001: 45). Four groups were tested: the first with 50% instruction and 50% participation,
the second with 20% instruction and 80% participation, the third with 100%
drumming, and the fourth led by a music therapist that emphasized camaraderie,
group acceptance, light-hearted participation, and non-judgmental
performance. The latter experienced the
most change in “classic stress response” which resulted in increased immune
function (Bittman 2001: 46). Increased
immune function is valuable not only for healthy individuals but especially for
those who have chronic diseases such as HIV/AIDS, lupus, and various forms of
cancer. Participating in African
drumming circles can help these individuals maintain their health without extra
medication, and provide important personal interaction to counteract depression
which often accompanies chronic disease.
African drumming can also
promote increased focus. John Janzen,
who studied healing practices in Africa associated with Ngoma (a widespread
form of ritual and healing in Central and Southern Africa), theorized that
brainwave synchronization can be attained by the administration of rhythmic
music (Janzen 1992: 127). In his 2006
dissertation “Effects of Drumming on Anxiety in Latino Male Youth,” Hal Nunez
confirmed that once both hemispheres of the brain synchronize, participants
experienced a “sense of clarity and heightened awareness” which increased focus
and attention span (Nunez 2006: 66). To achieve this synchronization,
participants should play for extended periods of time. During these extended playing sessions
participants experience inner time; where they encounter a “flow” or “high”
that gives them a “new awareness of the event” (Stone 2004: 89). This shared perspective creates solidarity
between the players and the audience demonstrating the African cultural value
of unity. I experienced unity when I
played for extended periods in my African drumming class. For example, during a session when my
classmate playing the sangba drum suddenly quit my sense of inner time was
dispelled. I felt the loss of the
sangba’s rhythm, but because the extended playing time had focused my mind I
did not quit playing my rhythm.
Increased focus is not only helpful for those suffering from ADHD and
related behavior illnesses, but also for those who experience “brain fog” or
“fuzzy thinking” because of medication side effects.
Additionally,
changes in blood pressure and pulse occur in drumming circle participants. The Law of Entrainment (discovered in 1665 by
Dutch scientist Christian Huygens) states that “if two rhythms are nearly the
same, and their sources are in close proximity, they will always entrain…nature
is efficient and it takes less energy to pulse together than in opposition”
(Hart 1990:121) Many music
therapists utilize this law to achieve changes in blood pressure and pulse in
their patients (Lawlis 1988:143). Repetition
is necessary to produce these biological changes, and African drumming is
uniquely suited for this task. For
instance, in the previously noted rhythm performed in my African drumming class
each part, except for the master drum, produces an ostinato rhythm or time
line. Every African drumming performance
contains a time line of some sort (Stone 2004: 81). The time line emphasizes the value Africans
place on “qualities of interaction” over quantitative (Stone 2004: 94). The time line highlights “the rhythmic
tension that characterizes a particular beat…the power of cross-rhythms is
magnified by repetition” (Chernoff 1979: 112).
In my African
drumming class the instructor and master drummer Damon Frazier, improvised over
the student’s timeline to produce the cross-rhythmic patterns and tension. The master drummer usually plays a feli
(goblet-shaped drum played with the hands) or kriti. The feli often have oval pieces of metal with
rings, called csing csing, fastened to the rim of the drum which provide a
snare-like timbre and increases the drums sustain. The kriti, played with sticks, is made out of
a hollowed piece of wood with three different length slits cut into it that
produce at least three different pitches.
The master djembe with csing csing generated a sharp tinny timbre with a
higher pitch and longer resonance than the student’s djembe’s. The kriti supplies a bright, cutting timbre
to the ensemble. The improvisational
instruments produce a polyrhythmic texture against the constant timeline of the
other djembe’s and djun djun’s. Because
the master drummer’s timbre (whether it is a djembe with csing csing or a kriti
drum) is higher and sharper than the drumming circle participants, it can act
as a transition between streams of consciousness. For instance, when I heard the kriti or
master djembe play the “break” I was immediately snapped out of entrainment and
more alert to my surroundings.
Therapists can utilize these timbre differences to help control the pace
of drumming circle sessions.
As a result of
entrainment from repetition, Hal Nunez suggested that because “the drum resonates and its skin and
hollowness are analogical to the ventricles and chambers of the heart” it has
power to affect blood pressure and pulse (Nunez 2006:13-14). I recorded my blood pressure and pulse
before and after each African drumming class.
Six of the ten sessions my blood pressure lowered 3 to 4 points and her
pulse rose 4 points. The other four
sessions my blood pressure rose 4 to 5 points and my pulse dropped 4
points. However, those four sessions are
the days I had lupus flares which do contribute to higher blood pressure. While this study cannot be conclusive because
of extraneous factors such as carrying drums up and down the stairs before and
after playing and my medical condition, it does provide some insight and basis
for further research with a larger, more controlled group. Heart disease is the leading cause of death
in the United States; and high blood pressure is one contributing factor. Besides diet and exercise, participation in
drumming circles is a safer method of therapy instead of medication. Patients may not be able to completely
substitute African drumming for the blood pressure medication but it may
prevent them from having to increase their dosage.
Besides
promoting physical health, African drumming also provides a sense of belonging,
one of humanity’s most basic needs.
Psychological anguish can affect the body physically; therefore, finding
a group of people with whom one can create strong relationships can be integral
in maintaining good health. Nunez’ drum circle
“participants reported feeling “good, relaxed, tranquil, and at peace” after
the African drumming sessions (Nunez 2006: 113). The Western world often views drumming
as “barbaric and disruptive to group cohesion” (Gioia 2006:161). However, social practices around the world
and particularly in Africa reveal that “social integration is promoted by
highly rhythmic sounds…the drums’ “throbbing heart-beat sound attracts and
unifies” (Gioia 2006:162). I had a mixed
experience of belonging in my African drumming class. Out of the 12 students enrolled 4 were
apathetic in their attendance and participation. These students often quit playing in the
middle of a session for no apparent reason, and they often texted while the
teacher was speaking. This greatly
reduced the feeling of class unity on days they were present. During the classes when these students were
absent, playing sessions lasted much longer and I experienced inner time more
often. “The healing force of African
drumming stems from two relational elements: one stretching out into the
community and surrounding environment and the other reaching into the body
itself” (Gioia: 2006: 42). These
apathetic students exemplify the Westerner’s problem of not “recognizing the
meaning and purpose of one’s relationship to the music as an event” (Chernoff
1979:33). To receive the full benefits
of African drumming a participant needs to understand Africans respect for each
other and their value of community partnership, which requires consistent
committed participation (Chernoff 1979: 35).
To
encourage implementation of African drumming as a viable therapy in medicine
and psychology, one must address the history of western hierarchical musical
values. It originated in the idea of
Orientalism, “a Western style for dominating, restructuring and having
authority over the Orient,” which stemmed from early 19th century
colonialism (Said 1978: 3). The Orient
refers to any country not in Europe, but mostly those in Africa and Asia. Colonialists viewed everything about these
other cultures as inferior, including their music. Thus, in the western musical hierarchy
harmony (considered the pinnacle of western music) resides at the top, melody
(associated with Asia) in the middle, and rhythm (associated with Africa and
Native Americans) at the bottom (Sherinian 2010: Class Notes). The instruments associated with melody and
rhythm in these marginalized countries and the people who play them are sharply
contrasted to the western instruments and musicians associated with
harmony. “Masculine, civilized, and
refined” often describe melodic instruments; “feminine, primal, and in touch
with the ecstatic” frequently describe drums and other idiophones (Gioia 2006:
74). Ted Gioia notes that many music therapists and music therapy textbooks
require
the
music therapy area be sound-proofed so that sounds produced inside the room
will not penetrate to the halls. This
admonition not only negates the sound of the music, it’s very essence, but also
delegitimizes the communal aspect that is such a critical part of music-making
in traditional cultures and, one suspects a major contributor to its efficacy
in healing in these settings. For the
music therapist, drums may be allowed, but please don’t play them too loudly
(Gioia 2006: 132).
In addition, many western doctors
and therapists view healing associated with drums as shamanistic practices;
while therapies administered with instruments of higher frequencies and an
emphasis on melody are seen as legitimate music therapy practices because even
though the age of colonialism has passed the values of western musical
hierarchy linger (Gioia 2006: 107). The
assumption that drums are not melodic instruments reveals a major flaw in this
world-view. African languages are tonal;
inflections of pitch and timbre delineate changes in meaning. African drumming imitates speech and each
drum is made with a specific frequency and timbre in mind (Chernoff 1979:
75) By emphasizing the cultural values
that African drumming promotes such as community participation, equality and
unity researchers can help dispel music therapy’s aversion to African drumming,
and encourage more effective implementation of African drumming in western
music therapy.
In
conclusion, African drumming bestows participants with an opportunity to be
“rhythmically attuned to the cycles of nature, their own body, and their
fellow” man (Hart 1990: 195). Results
from many studies show that the timbre of African drumming and its
repetitiveness can affect alpha brain waves which may be used as pain
management therapy (Neher 1961, Turner 1992, Nunez 2006). In addition, group African drumming sessions
can alter body chemistry and brain chemicals resulting in increased immune
function (Goodman 1988, Bittman 2001).
These changes are achieved by community participation and a perceived
connection between group members, which is demonstrated in the music through
interlocking facets (Chernoff 1979: 38).
The extended playing sessions of African drumming can also increase
focus and promote unity through the shared experience of inner time (Janzen
1992, Nunez 2006).
Additionally, African drumming’s
repetitious nature and inherent timbre can change blood pressure and pulse by
altering the player’s internal biological rhythms (Lawlis 1988, Stone 2004,
Nunez 2006). Lastly, African drumming
encourages equality and a sense of belonging through collective participation
where each person’s individual playing is important and part of the whole
(Chernoff 1979, Gioia 2006, Nunez 2006).
These quantifiable mental and physical outcomes demonstrate the
viability of African drumming as an effective therapy for medical and psychological
treatments. Experiencing music together,
such as African drumming, reminds us that we are all connected and that
everyone has something unique and valuable to add to this world.
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APPENDIX
Djembe with csing csing
Djun Djun Family
Kriti
